Outsourcing as a Class Struggle Essay Example for Free

Outsourcing as a Class Struggle Essay The world has a long history of class struggles. Karl Marx saw the conflict between classes in the roles they played in goods production. The upper class or the bourgeoisie reaped all the benefits from the labor of the lower class or the proletariat. The exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie caused the former to live in poverty with no means to buy the goods he himself produced. In today’s global economy, the class struggle between the new bourgeoisie and the new proletariat is evident in business outsourcing. This is where companies find external experts to do non-core jobs for them to efficiently manage production costs. The current trend crosses international boundaries in search of low wage earners to pass the jobs to. They transfer employment from industrialized countries to poor third world nations with low manpower costs.. The workers in the foreign country who got the jobs, however, got much less for what should be humanly equitable. Marx would see outsourcing as the exploitation of the working class by the capitalist class. In order to meet production targets, the workers would be made to work longer hours with the least pay. Marx would think that the sole intention of the capitalist class is to rake in profit at the expense of its workers who suffer work under unhealthy conditions and hours. Marx would likewise note that global operations would cause the detriment of local and established industries. The bourgeoisie’s capitalistic focus is on the maximum production that can be done in a day. It can weaken and destroy the proletariat but the proletariat has the means to fight off the bourgeoisie when it remains united in a common struggle,

Youth Gangs And Youth Violence Criminology Essay

Youth Gangs And Youth Violence Criminology Essay To believe that the existence of youth gangs and juvenile violence is a myth is to believe that its causes are also fictional. But what is so fictional about this reality? There is no denying that there are gangs, brought about by many of Americas youth, who wants a quick fix in life. Studies back this up. The national survey of law enforcement jurisdiction counted almost a million gang members in the United States. Among these gang members, 46,000 were involved in gang accidents that spurred a violent crime (Hunzeker, 1993). According to the study by the West Virginia University (Hunzeker, 1993), about 20,000 violent offenses were connected to gangs, which includes 974 homicides, occurred in Americas 72 largest cities. Our contemporary information about gang formation considerably attributes their existence, again, to poverty and other social problems. This factor is magnified further when you add the availability of drugs and weapons in the community into the scenario. These variab les (poverty, drugs, and weapons) tell us much about the trend of gang formation. Research suggests that gangs and their crimes increase when community degenerates or if the economy drops (Hunzeker, 1993). Furthermore, when neighborhoods, schools, families in the community disperse or decays, most youth turn to gang membership as a means to build their esteem and re-establish their social identity. Now, there is absolutely nothing mythical about this. Truth of the matter is, gangs seem to be an attractive option where legitimate means of survival is lacking. Thus, gangs mirror societys identity-juvenile gangs are the reflection of the youth on the very society they live in. Almost any enrollment to gangs affords the youth protection and excitement, which is why the propensity for violence is always there. Drugs and weapons connected to the crime is only the direct result of the gangs inherent objectives. But the most violent crimes connected to gangs are not random shootings or drug disputes; rather it is the escalation of disputes between rival gangs. II. There are various points of views from experts on the causes of youth gangs and violence. John Hagan and Bill McCarthy of Cambridge University offer an insight between the relationship between juvenile and their participation to criminal activities. Moreover, they added, the common profile of a street youth is male, around 18 years old and comes from a broken home. Approximately 30% had lived with both biological parents before leaving home, 24% had lived with step-families, 18% had lived with a lone-mother, and 17% had lived in foster or group homes before taking to the street (Hunzeker, 1993). A full 87% of youth have undergone physical violence from their parents or guardian; and another 60% of them were bruised due to assault. Most criminologists peg street crimes to young men who are poor, unemployed, badly educated and frequently raised in unstable homes. These men account more than half of street crimes occurrences. These are the base roots of street crimes, but to explain why juvenile turns to street crime needs a much detailed analysis. Experts say that variables like poverty and poor health influence criminal behavior, but there is a large disagreement among them in what actually causes youth to go against the law and injure others. Elliot Currie, a crime expert of University of California at Berkeley for example, believes that street crimes are largely due to the U.S. failure to support poor families (Robinson, 2003, 2). In this case, there is a widespread inequality that gives rise to resentment and anger. Mercer Sullivan an anthropologist of Vera Institute, on the other hand, believes that education is to blame (Mears Travis, 2004, 31). He thinks that poorly educated young individuals, regardless of their race, are all curious of exploring crime. But as time moves on when some individuals mature through getting decent jobs, while others didnt because of racial disparity, inequality or other unjustifiable reasons that negatively affected them, these individuals become desperate and turns to street crime-such as burglary and mugging-to compensate. Other experts thrust their blame on the environment; others to mental disorder; still others to negative influences. At the same time, these youth begin to see the social system as unfair who look at themselves as unemployable, which significantly increases their involvement to possible criminal action. Now, why is this so? Because these juveniles grew up in a conventional society where they believed eventually betrayed them. Thus, they responded with depression and guilt, leading to a passive withdrawal and criminal behavior inhibition. They begin to narrow down their options and see that crime is the better alternative than employment to compensate their material needs. III. Addressing this issue begins looking for changes on how this problem can be mitigated, which can lead to more feasible solutions. In this case, we describe law enforcement authorities. Typically, the police try its best to curb the increasing problems of juvenile street crimes. They have two approaches: An aggressive stance and punishment to those hard-core predatory gang members; and the prevention of recruitment and early intervention to would-be gang members These two approaches may be effective on a poor community that has had enough of gang-related street crime. But what happens when theres a gang increase in a comparatively affluent towns and suburbs. The loophole of this approach is purely on perception. Usually when forums revolve around homeless youth, they are always tagged as the criminal perpetrators. This is due to the deeply rooted perspective that endured to popular media, which believes that delinquent street, homeless youths are bad, deviant, troubled, or misgui ded, who apparently have left their homes with insignificant reasons. Once out to the streets, they are labeled as involved in criminal activities, which puts at risk the publics health and safety. It is they who are the usual suspects for disturbing the peace; that causes problems to the public; that are driving away tourist by making streets unsafe; etc. Yet, these forums fail to point out that these homeless juveniles equally are victims of street crime. When living in the streets, young individuals are highly exposed to delinquent activities, dangerous locations, proximity to other offenders-that can all lead to victimization. Police and the community must have a better understanding of the causes. IV. First essential facet to improve on change preconceived ideas and stop the stereotyping and profiling juveniles on the streets. Officials and law-makers can start with the media, especially in this time and day where the bread and butter of television news are the spicing up of events. According to Rose (1994), street crimes are the coal that boils the crisis boiler. Reportage of street crimes are exaggerated in the United States that the real facts of the matter are left out to give way to perception and sensationalizing of events. The trouble with this source of information is that media executives reinforce their viewers stereotype by showing only one side of the offenders and not taking account of other reasons of the crime. Television enables its viewers to categorize what crime to what offender commits them, without giving more extensive information on why that crime took place in the sociological level. Viewers, in turn, are fed with profiling street juveniles. It shows that news reports overstate crime committed by minorities by consistent reportage and tableau of either Blacks, Latinos, Asians, etc. in a crime that shapes to false perception, which skews reality by giving a scary and untrue image of crime in America. What is needed as one of the most essential solutions to curbing juvenile street crimes is more information towards the public viewers on what sets criminal behavior among their youth. The community should realize that a criminal incident is not an isolated case-it is brought about by multiple, interrelationship of the juveniles condition, including poverty, homelessness, etc. The viewing public should see the connections of why street crime occurs. This is the only way to begin a solution against social delinquency, through a keen observation of interrelated factors.

Descartes And Nietzsche Views On Human Nature Philosophy Essay

Descartes And Nietzsche Views On Human Nature Philosophy Essay The French philosopher, Renee Descartes wrote his famous book Meditations on First Philosophy and first published in 1641. The book consists of six meditations where Descartes writes all his beliefs, queries and concerns about the uncertain things and the things that he is sure about. In his meditations, he discussed the human nature and the human beings in depth explaining his belief that mind and body are separate and his famous cogito I think, I exist. First of all, the human nature for Descartes is composed of mind and body and how they are distinct from each other. In the Sixth mediation Concerning the Existence of Material Things and the Real distinction between Mind and Body, Descartes mentioned that the body and the soul are not alike and called his thesis mind-body dualism. The mind- Body dualism explains that the body and mind can perceive things clearly apart from each other because God creates everything distinct and independent from each other. He referred to the mind as I; therefore he reached an argument that he is a thinking thing A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing, is unwilling and also imagines and has sensory perceptions (Descartes). Therefore, the mind is a non-extended thing, indivisible clear and different from the body while the body is an extended, divisible and non thinking thing. The nature of a body for Descartes can understand and perceive the shape of other bodies. The essence or the nature of the mind can distinguish between the power of imagination and understating where imagination is the picturing of things and understanding is the perception of things without comprehension. The second view of Descartes was concerning the human being; he referred to the cogito I think, I exist as being the essence of the existence of a human being. Therefore, a human being exists and is capable of thinking; Descartes affirms that a human being is a substantial union , a unified entity of a body and mind where each on e of them is separate and this assumption leads to the human nature and the distinction between body and mind. He also argued that a something exists because there is something already exists and creates it; this leads to his arguments about the existence of God as being perfect who creates a human being. We, as human beings, are not infinite or perfect beings and we are susceptible of committing errors and mistakes because we dont have the unlimited ability to recognize the truth. Referring to Friedrich Nietzsche and his book twilight of the Idols, he was against the philosophy of Descartes the mind- body dualism and that the body and mind are separate and also rejected the Christianity doctrines which deny the ideology of a human being. He affirms that the mind and body are one entity and are one aspect of the nature of human beings. He mentioned that a human being can define himself by having the will to life which leads to the will to power. He described the will to power as being the driving force for achievement and leadership by the human beings in face of the miseries of human nature. The doctrines of Nietzsche regarding the will to power and the will to life contradict the doctrines of Christianity; therefore, Nietzsche was against Christianity as being an anti-life weak. Christianity teachings promote self-sacrifice, devotion and quietude which denies the values of human being and their driving force will to power. He also mentioned that human beings are having innate human natures and desire. The desires existing within us form and define the state of the human being; a reasonable, strong human being can control himself and avoid drawbacks in life and a weak human being is the one who doesnt have self-control and denies these desires or passions. Therefore, Nietzsche concludes that a human have to accommodate with his human nature and passions which eventually leads to the greatest moralities. Based on the two platonic dialogues (Apology and Phaedo), discuss the relationship of the philosopher with the polis. In addition to the political community of the City of Athens, Socrates is pointing to another community, what do you think is the significance of this Socratic gesture? The polis is the city-state of the Greek civilization; the city states in Greece were small communities and were male-dominated. The citizens of the polis were the elite groups while slaves, peasants, women and resident aliens were not part of the structure of citizens. The citizens involvement in the Polis was directed towards politics, intellectual discussions and art contributions. The Greek philosophers examined basic questions such as the nature of good and evil, the after-life, wisdom and other issues. The art of politics was closely related to the logos or logic; the polis witnessed the management of language, the excellence of speeches, the discussions of the polis issues. The relation between the philosopher and the polis was an unstable relation due to the corruption of the Greek polis and the unjust ruling of the elite groups. Plato and Aristotle were the most famous and well-known philosophers at that time and they had a great influence on the Greek polis. As we know Plat o was a student of Socrates therefore he was influenced by his teacher to the greatest extent. The affection of Socrates on Plato is clear and plain in Platos dialogues. Plato showed his interest in the polis in his book the republic by discussing the necessary fundamentals of a welfare society; the spiritual, mental and physical development of one citizen contributes to the overall benefit of one society. In The Republic, Plato discussed many topics for example justice, ethics, nature of politics and statesmanship. He also critiqued the existing status of the polis, its institutions and its political order. For Plato, the polis is ruled by self-interest rulers (elite groups) who are seeking lust in power and strength, thus the polis is disordered community ruled by self-interest rulers who claim possessing the knowledge but in fact they are ignorant, unwise and do not how to rule or govern the citys affairs because they are driven by their desires and appetites for power. Referring to Socrates trial, Plato condemned the rulers of the polis and so called the Athenian democracy upon the death of Socrates. Aristotle in his famous book Politics expressed his views concerning the Polis or the Greek community. He classified the government as being: monarchy or tyranny, aristocracy or oligarchy, law abiding or lawless democracy. Aristotle also explained the prevailing problems in the polis concerning the poverty and slavery; he saw that the best performing polis is the city that combines between democracy, legitimacy and just rules. Obviously, the Greek polis at that time was lacking the three components of Aristotles beliefs about a welfare and prosperous polis. Aside from Plato and Aristotle, the sophists were part of the Greek community; they were responsible of teaching the Athenians sons for a free. They were excellent in rhetoric and speech skills; they possessed the art of public speaking and the persuasion skills too; the least the sophists cared about was t he truth. In Platos dialogues, Socrates addressed the Men of Athens as a corrupt community who are ignorant and do not know how to govern the city justly under fair rules. The community which Socrates is part of was corrupt, condemning him to a death sentence because of allegations made by Meletus and his followers. Socrates was accused falsely as being a bad teacher who is poising the youths minds and not believing in the god and goddesses of Athens. For Socrates, the Athenian Community was a lawless community controlled by judges who dont apply the law that they sworn to do. He also pointed to another community which evokes inquires and questions of Socrates along the two dialogues; it was the community where Socrates can find justice, tranquility and fairness with dead true judges. He described them in his queries about the after-life; Socrates said in his trial that he is not afraid of death. He described death an easy and a blessing thing from God; he also was conceived that a good man cannot be harmed in life or death and his good deeds and affairs will save him in the afterlife. He also believed that he will be moved to a peaceful place where he will be re-united with the dead community who has good deeds too in heaven. He was content that he will be in the companion of famous and wise heroes like Orpheus and Musaeus, Hesiod and Homer and will continue practicing his philosophy with them. Finally, I think that the significance of the Socratic gesture about the dead community is his way of trying to glorify the concept of death as being a benevolent and peaceful thing not a tragedy or fearful as the living community think who lamented on his death sentence and his separation from the living world. He also tries to picture that the other place in after life is a perfect place where he will be meet honest women and men which is totally opposite to the Greek community as being corrupt and unlawful at that time.

Purchasing New Cars is NOT the Best Way to Help Environment :: Automobiles Global Warming Climate Change

More and more families have their own car. As a result, the air in cities is increasingly polluted. Owners should be made to switch to less polluting vehicles. To what extent do you agree? With the economic growth of the society, more and more families are able to own automobiles of their own. As a result, thus caused very serious environment problems, the air pollution within the metropolis area is getting worse day by day. Residents’ daily lives are affected by the pollution, and basic life requirement such as breath fresh air becomes unreachable. Even worse that the future living condition of our children is seriously threatened. We must call up the conscience of our drivers and shanghai government to take actions to protect the environment, and keep the pollution as low as we can. This essay will look at the advantage and disadvantage of the government making car owners buy rehire which produce less pollution. The advantage of the government making car owners buy new cars replacing old smoke maker will benefit the improving of the environment, also in the same time stimulate the development of the automobile industry, and meanwhile benefit the economic growth. Also the development of the automobile industry will offer an opportunity of social reemployment. On the other hand, this policy can also change people’s perspective of living and consideration of the environmental problems. Make people more concern about the conservation of the environment, and evoke their conscience to protect the environment. By thus we can reduce the pollution, and make better environment. So changing new cars will also make the city looks flourishing, reduce the exhaust emission, and make people healthier. However, every coin has two sides, the biggest disadvantage of buying new cars is it creates more disposals of the old vehicles, which will become a huge burden of society. How do we deal with these new disposals, where should these old vehicles go to, and how do we dismantle them. There will be a new environment problem emerge for us to solve. Also on the other hand, people have to spend more money on changing new vehicles, which will bring more burdens to their lives. These are the most disadvantages we have to consider In conclusion, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages, I personally think it is not the best way to improve the environment and reduce the pollution by purchasing new cars.

Ethical Theories :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Ethical Theories Hedonism and self-realization are ethical theories that take roots in the works of Greek philosophers and that developed many branches throughout the human history. Hedonism is based on the recognition of pleasure (or happiness) and avoidance of pain as an ultimate goal of any human being and thus establish a moral ground for one’s acting in striving to be happy. In early stages, hedonism took individualistic forms of Cyrenaic and Epicurean theories. In order to lead a good life, the Cyrenaics propose to actively seek intense momentary pleasure (of any duration) from our everyday life maintaining that pleasures of our senses and the body are preferable to pleasures derived from the mind. In contrast to Cyrenaics, the Epicurean theory denies active seeking of pleasure in favor of avoidance of pain (in fact, Epicurean view defines pleasure as avoidance of pain) and stresses the importance of long-run mental contentment in life. While Cyrenaics and Epicureans sought pleasure only for themselves exercising individualistic hedonism, Stuart Mill’s theory is an example of universalistic hedonism which takes into account not only the pleasure people can gain for themselves but also how those pleasure-seeking actions affect other individuals and society in general and whose ultimate goal is to increase the amount of happiness for humankind as a whole. Specifically, Stuart Mill adhered to the theory of utilitarianism (a social hedonism) that states that moral actions are right if they produce â€Å"the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of persons.† The significance of his work is in introduction of the qualitative aspect of pleasure into utilitarianism. According to Mill, there are different kinds of pleasure and the more desirable of any two kinds is the one that is agreed to be more valuable or desirable for the majority of people who experienced both. The intellectual pleasure d erived from art, music, etc. is considered to be higher than physical pleasure derived from sex, eating, etc. Based on the classification of different kinds of pleasure performed by experts the moral values of the society can be developed and then followed by everyone. To avoid immoral actions that can be justified as means of maximizing happiness, Mill adheres to rule-utilitarian view which states that an action is right if it is based on a rule that maximizes happiness of the affected population as opposed to act-utilitarianism that evaluates the action itself. For example, a rule of helping others maximizes happiness in general so we should follow this rule. Ethical Theories :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays Ethical Theories Hedonism and self-realization are ethical theories that take roots in the works of Greek philosophers and that developed many branches throughout the human history. Hedonism is based on the recognition of pleasure (or happiness) and avoidance of pain as an ultimate goal of any human being and thus establish a moral ground for one’s acting in striving to be happy. In early stages, hedonism took individualistic forms of Cyrenaic and Epicurean theories. In order to lead a good life, the Cyrenaics propose to actively seek intense momentary pleasure (of any duration) from our everyday life maintaining that pleasures of our senses and the body are preferable to pleasures derived from the mind. In contrast to Cyrenaics, the Epicurean theory denies active seeking of pleasure in favor of avoidance of pain (in fact, Epicurean view defines pleasure as avoidance of pain) and stresses the importance of long-run mental contentment in life. While Cyrenaics and Epicureans sought pleasure only for themselves exercising individualistic hedonism, Stuart Mill’s theory is an example of universalistic hedonism which takes into account not only the pleasure people can gain for themselves but also how those pleasure-seeking actions affect other individuals and society in general and whose ultimate goal is to increase the amount of happiness for humankind as a whole. Specifically, Stuart Mill adhered to the theory of utilitarianism (a social hedonism) that states that moral actions are right if they produce â€Å"the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of persons.† The significance of his work is in introduction of the qualitative aspect of pleasure into utilitarianism. According to Mill, there are different kinds of pleasure and the more desirable of any two kinds is the one that is agreed to be more valuable or desirable for the majority of people who experienced both. The intellectual pleasure d erived from art, music, etc. is considered to be higher than physical pleasure derived from sex, eating, etc. Based on the classification of different kinds of pleasure performed by experts the moral values of the society can be developed and then followed by everyone. To avoid immoral actions that can be justified as means of maximizing happiness, Mill adheres to rule-utilitarian view which states that an action is right if it is based on a rule that maximizes happiness of the affected population as opposed to act-utilitarianism that evaluates the action itself. For example, a rule of helping others maximizes happiness in general so we should follow this rule.

Ethical Hacking Essay

As computers became progressively more available at universities, user communities started to extend beyond researchers in engineering or computer science to other individuals who viewed the computer as an inquisitively flexible instrument. Whether they programmed the computers to draw pictures, play games or to assist them with the extra boring aspects of their daily work, once computers were on hand for use, there was never a lack of individuals wanting to utilize them. Because of this increasing fame of computers and their sustained high cost, access to them was frequently restricted. When refused access to the computers, several users would challenge the access controls that had been put in place. They would steal pass codes or account numbers by looking over someone’s shoulder, explore the system for bugs that might get them past the rules, or even take control of the entire system. They would commit such things in order to be able to run the programs of their option, or just to alter the confines under which their programs were running. (Fadia, 2005). Originally these computer intrusions were fairly benevolent, with the most harm being the theft of computer time. Though, these intrusions did not stay benign for long. Seldom the less talented intruders would unintentionally bring down a system or damage its files, and the system administrators would have to restart it or make repairs. Other times, when these intruders were again deprived of access once their activities were discovered, they would respond with robust destructive actions. When the number of these harmful computer intrusions became obvious, it became â€Å"news† and the news media pulled out on the story. Instead using a more accurate term of â€Å"cyber crime,† the media began using the term â€Å"hacker† to explain individuals who crack into computers for amusement, revenge, or income Since calling someone a â€Å"hacker† was at first meant as a praise, computer security professionals rather use the term â€Å"cracker† or â€Å"intruder† for those hackers who turn to the dark side of hacking. For simplicity, we will use the unambiguous terms â€Å"ethical hacker† and â€Å"criminal hacker† for the rest of this paper.

Economic development Essay

Smith (2002) follows the research structure in 1990 but narrows down the research range from country-level data to industry-level data. This paper provides further analysis from 1972 to 1992 at five-year intervals and focuses on three specific patent-sensitive industries – Biological products, Medicinal and Botanicals, and Pharmaceuticals. The results in the paper support the hypothesis of the previous studies in 1999. Moreover, one of the mainly differences between this paper and the previous studies, as mentioned above, is the measure of patent rights index. The level of patent rights protection varies from countries to countries. In practice, there are two methods to measure the patent rights index – Rapp-Rozek index and Ginarte-Park index. Maskus and Penubarti’s research (1995) and Smith (1999 & 2001) all adopt Rapp and Rozek index but this paper measures patent rights index by Ginarte-Park index. In fact, two patent rights indices have been used in many empirical literatures about patent rights. The Rapp and Rozek index will be measured by six features – â€Å"coverage of inventions, examination procedures, and term of protection, transferability of rights, compulsory licensing, and effective enforcement against infringement† (Smith, P. J. 1999). On the side, the scores of Ginarte and Park index will be determined by five features – membership in international treaties, coverage, and restrictions on patent rights, enforcement and duration of protection. The sum score is zero through five. The higher total points indicate stronger patent protection (Park, W. G. , 2008). Smith’s finding verifies that there is no significant difference between using two patent rights indices. Notwithstanding, comparing with Rapp and Rozek index, Ginarte-Park index which merger the important international patent laws and agreement into the evaluation is used in this paper. Rafiquzzaman (2002) examines the amount of export of Canada to 76 countries in 1990 according to 22 categories in 2-digit level of the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes. The explanatory variables are gross national income, population size, patent rights, tariff rate and distance. It is worth noting that Rafiquzzaman compare the results of two different index of patent right as well and then find the correlation between Rapp-Rozex index for 1984 and Ginarte-Park index for 1990 is 0. 78. In other words, using either Rapp-Rozex index or Ginarte-Park index to estimate country’s patent protection has no significant difference, as Smith’s finding. The conclusion of this study provides support for verifying Smith’s hypothesis in 1999. That is to say, an increase in patent rights often leads in an increase in Canada’s exports, in particular if importing countries have high economic development levels and strong threats to imitation. After reviewing the theoretical research and existing empirical literatures, the effect of patent rights might be positive or negative, even be ambiguous. It might depend on some characteristics of importing countries – country’s economic developments levels, strength of patent rights and local imitation pressure, for example. This paper attempts to extend Smith’s research in 1999 but use different database. Besides, this paper adopts up-to-date data (2005) to examine the relationship between the strength of patent right and international trade which does the result as the same as Smith’s research in 1999, 2001, and 2002. This research structure can help governments have an overall picture to analyze the relationship between economic growth and the strength of patent rights. As discussed above, effects of patent rights are defined in early empirical studies are market expansion and market power. In principle, market power and expansion effects can be briefly explained in two aspects – demand and supply in economics. The market expansion effect can be defined that market shares of patent holders will rise when the patent rights protection in importing countries is improved. The advanced rights of patent generate higher costs of imitation to competitors and encourage, promote and attract more foreign technology to importing countries. In other words, less imitation not only implies an increased demand for exports because of lower costs, but also infers an increased supply. It is because exporters save anti-imitative costs such as monitor costs, enforcement costs and costs to prevent copying and imitation. In a standard demand and supply model, cost reduction leads a right shift both in demand and supply line. On the other hand, improved patent rights protection might produce monopolistic market power and contribute to a more concentrated market because of higher technical and cost barriers to entry. From the standard monopoly model, it can be seen that the sold quantity of monopolistic enterprises would be always less than the society optimum quantity in order to sell products at prices plus monopoly mark up. There is a monopolistic tactics to maximize firms profit is to beat selling quantity down in order to raise price. Hence, market power effect will confer more market power on the patent holders and then result in a reduction of the amount of export. In this article, we collect data sets from US exports and study three forms of bilateral trade equations to test three hypotheses about the relationship between exports and patent rights in relation to income development, imitative abilities, and threat of imitation, respectively. The first hypothesis which examines the relation between patent rights and country development is based on Maskus and Penubarti’s research (1995) and Smith’s research (1999). The other two hypotheses are based on Smith’s research (1999) to take the degree of threat of imitation and imitative abilities into account. Hypothesis 1- interaction between exports and patent rights with relation to country’s level of development In this section, I suppose a country’s development of patent rights positively respond to its economic development. We assume that countries with higher economic development would pay more attention on patent reform. In addition, higher-income developed countries possess much financial resources than lower-income countries. As imagined, higher-income developed nations are likely to control up great majority expenditure and performance on research and development in the world. Otherwise, developing countries take ambiguous attitudes towards the world’s patent reform. As discussed above, a fierce debate originates in some doubts with regard to effects of patent protection from developing countries. A patent reform in developing countries might attract foreign investment and international trade, but it might restrain economic development in local industry as well. Besides, lower income economies seem to relatively lack non natural resources such as financial and technological resources. It is said that higher income countries possess some degree of market power because of these unique competitive advantages such as patent, financial resources or higher technical capacities. Hence, referring to above assumptions, higher income developed nations pose stronger patent protection than lower income countries have.